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LITTLE BLUE BOOK NO. 468 
Edited by E. Haldeman-Juliug 


A History of 
Architecture 

MURRAY SHEEHAN, A. M. 


HALDEMAN-JULIUS COMPANY 
GIRARD, KANSAS 





f 



















* 




i' 


i 














■ 




















. / 






POCKET SERIES NO. 468 

Edited by E. Haldeman-Julius 


A History of Architecture 

Murray Sheehan, A.M. 

Author of “A History of Music,” “A History of 
Painting,” “A History of Sculpture,” ‘‘Hints 
on Scenario Writing,” “Hints on 
News Reporting,” all of 
which are in the 
Pocket Series. 


HALDEMAN-JULIUS COMPANY 
GIRARD, KANSAS 




5 * 


Copyright, 1923, * 

Haldeman-Julius Company 


DEG. 10 1923. . 

©C1A771256 


A HISTORY OF 
ARCHITECTURE 






A HISTORY OF 
ARCHITECTURE 


PREHISTORIC TIMES 

Of the beginnings of architecture we have, of 
course, no trace. Man’s primitive ancestors had 
been shaping for themselves rude shelters 
against the fury of the elements, in caves or 
under cliffs, for countless ages, when finally 
that step was taken which constituted the first 
advance toward architectural feeling. This 
came only when they progressed beyond the dic¬ 
tates of the direst necessity and added some de¬ 
tail for the pleasure of the eye; that is to say, 
when to the naked behests of sheer practicality 
they added a touch of beauty. Like all the arts, 
architecture arose to satisfy the hunger of man 
for something beyond the mere appetites of his 
body. It was a luxury added to the daily grind 
for sustenance and reproduction and shelter, or, 
as some have expressed it, this was an out¬ 
growth of the play-spirit which we see even in 
birds and aniipals. 

j Oddly enough, the earliest dates we can as- 




A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


sign for the European crude first reaching; 
toward architecture are very nearly contempor 
aneous with those first monuments of Egyp 
and Babylonia from which we were actually t( 
derive our later and more lasting type of civil 
ization and architectural development. Abou 
4000 B.C., that is, there was flourishing ir 
various parts of what are now England, France 
Ireland, etc., a prehistoric type of man whc 
reared great monuments of crude stone whicl 
have survived to our day. Sometimes these con 
sisted of unshaped plinths set upright in the 
ground, called menhirs, which we can onl? 
surmise to have served in some way for relig 
ious services. At Carnac, in Brittany, there ar< 
still long rows of these, thousands in number 
but they were also set up singly, at times crude 
ly chiseled to represent a human form. Ther 
there were rough structures where across th: 
top of upright stones were laid huge slabs o 
rock, forming what are known as dolmens. Ii 
the case of the largest of these, as near Saumui 
in France, a room about thirty feet long wa 
formed, approximately ten feet wide, with 
ceiling eight feet in height. What these wer 



A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


7 


ied for is also still unknown. Cromlechs were 
rmed by erecting upright stones in a circle, 
ch as we see at Stonehenge, on Salisbury 
lain, in England, where the general arrange- 
ent and the alignment with the apparent mo¬ 
ms of the sun have pretty yell established for 
> the fact that this was a religious structure, 
lplying a considerable degree of civilization. 

1 What devastation or invasion overthrew this 
ilture we do not know, but certain it is that 
r the time of the coming of the Romans it had 
ng since disappeared and the art of working in 
one had been completely forgotten. Thus it is 
at these structures are still largely mysterious 
us, problems for archeologists to ponder 
'er. So far as we know, this civilization left 
1 3 influence on later peoples, and thus the 
ain current of our architectural development 
| id its rise on the alien shores of the Nile and 
lie Euphrates, to which we must turn for the 

I jginnings of our cultural building. 

I say nothing, here of those marvelous struc- 
ires which are now coming to light in our own 
emisphere, the handiwork of Aztecs, Incas, 
c.; for what we wish to trace in this booklet 




8 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

is the rise of traditional architecture in Europe 
and America as it has shaped and influenced 
our civilization today. Thus also, those three 
great branches of Oriental architecture will not 
he treated, the Mohammedan, the Brahman and 
the Chinese and Japanese, which likewise lie 
outside our present province. 

EGYPT 

Thus one is safe in stating that as far as our 
civilization is concerned architecture originated 
in Egypt. The monuments still standing from 
4000 B.C. must not be looked upon as the begin¬ 
ning, however, as by that date the Egyptians 
had already advanced far, and the structures 
they erected show a long background of histor¬ 
ical development. 

The oldest and greatest of Egyptian monu 
ments still standing is that huge pile of stone 
which we know as the Pyramid of Cheops at 
Gizeh, and characteristically enough it is a 
tomb. For the Egyptians devoted more atten¬ 
tion to the resting-places of their dead than they 
did to their own homes, to judge by the remains 
that have come down to us, and lavished their 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 9 

hitectural powers on tombs and on temples 
ne. The pyramids, of which we know more 
n a hundred, most of which were built of 
re faced with marble, were most marvelously 
It, with long narrow passages leading to their 
ters, where were buried the monarchs for 
Dm they were erected. Of architecture proper 
re is perhaps but little about these structures, 
ich possess structurally only the most primi- 
d suggestion of the arch to support the tre- 
adous weight bearing down on the open cen- 
l chambers. 

/lore noteworthy from an architectural point 
view were the temples of the Egyptians, the 
est of which date from about 1700 B.C and 
ir. These were built in a heavy style, more 
)le than elegant, with great open courts lead- 
■ to immense halls filled with giant columns, 
e outward aspect of these structures was 
her blank, owing to there being no visible 
ldows, and the entrance was generally 
ough a huge gateway called a pylon. The 
□inns employed by the Egyptians were topped- 
ornaments derived from the lotus and the 
m or with carved effigies of the goddess 


10 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

Hathor. Some of these were seventy feet 
height and nearly twelve feet in diame 
richly carved and bright with color from tot 
bottom, so that an Egyptian temple must h 
been a brilliant spectacle with the glare of 
tropical sun beating down on its painted w; 
and reflected into its halls from the open coi 
Later, under the Ptolemies, who were of I 
lenic origin, some more delicate temples w 
erected, of which we have in recent years ' 
some of the most lovely, at Philae, through 
erection of the great irrigation dams in the N 

CHALDEAN ARCHITECTURE 

Over in that other great fertile river-basin 
ancient times, drained by the Tigris and 
Euphrates, there was another civilization dat 
back to 4000 B.C., and furnishing us with 
tremely early architectural remains. But wh( 
as the Egyptians had exhaustless quarries 
stone upon which to draw, these people w 
forced to construct with baked clay, which t] 
formed into bricks, frequently glazed with bri 
colors, many of which have even today not 1 
their brilliancy. In one important respect th 


A HISTORif OF ARCHITECTURE 


11 


pies surpassed the Egyptians architecturally, 
n though in general they were less skilled: 
?y knew how to construct the arch, and used 
ixtensively in their buildings, even vaulting 
g corridors in their palaces and temples. 

he Biblical Ur of the Chaldees has recently 
n yielding some interesting discoveries to 
heological investigators, dating perhaps from 
ut 2200 B.C. These would seem to indicate 
t whereas the Egyptians had devoted most 
mtion to tombs and temples, the Chaldeans 
*e more concerned with the erection of vast 
aces for their rulers. Later, wheh the 
yrians had conquered the land, in about 1250 
., they adopted the general characteristics of 
older style of building, erecting at Nineveh 
;e structures on raised platforms, almost 
hout windows, with great doorways flanked 
enormous carved figures of winged lions 
ring human heads. The brick walls were 
ered with slabs of alabaster, and with those 
carvings depicting scenes of hunting or of 
tie which are now preserved in our museums, 
il later came the period of Babylon, when 
se that type of temple, pyramidal in shape, 


12 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

rising by huge steps to the sanctuary of the 
Bel on top, which was the prototype of t 
famous Tower of Babel said to be the ori 
of our troublesome perplexity of tongues. 

Of these two great original types of build 
the Greeks adopted the columns and lintels 
the Egyptians while passing by the arch ; 
the vault of the Assyrians. But from these 
ter people they probably adopted certain foi 
of ornament, such as the rosette and the spr€ 
ing palm. The Romans very likely deri 
their use of the arch and even of the do 
from Assyrian usage, as handed down to th 
through the Lydians and the Etruscans. T 
we owe more to these two very early cultu 
architecturally than we ordinarily realize, i 
if we had not derived from them, we should 
day be living and working in structures perh 
far different from what we have. 

PERSIAN AND HEBREW ARCHITECTUR 

When Cyrus the Great and Cambyses c 
quered the Orient in the sixth century, a r 
development in architecture was opened, wh 
we call the Persian, lasting about two centur 



A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 13 

Such luxury was now unfolded as had never 
been seen, embodying elements from the 
Egyptians and the Assyrians, in the great pal¬ 
aces of Persepolis and Susa. They employed 
baked bricks, frequently highly glazed in bright 
colors, as the Assyrians had done, but also they 
employed columns, after the Egyptian manner, 
except that they now used wooden beams be¬ 
tween these supports, where the Egyptians used 
slabs of stone, and thus the later work was 

more open and wide-spaced. In the Louvre 

/ 

Museum at Paris is preserved one of the huge 
capitals from one of the Susa columns. It is 
an enormous affair, twenty feet in height, 
worthy to crown a shaft nearly seventy feet in 
height, such as was employed. It consists of a 
two-headed bull, between whose shoulders rested 
a wooden beam, while a transverse beam rested 
on the two heads. 

The Hebrews have ever been an adaptive peo¬ 
ple, taking from the peoples with whom they 
came into contract anything which suited them, 
and so we are not surprised to find that their 
architecural style was based on elements de¬ 
rived from Egyptians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, 


14 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECT LIRE 


Greeks, Romans, etc. Even that ancient temple 
erected by Solomon about 1012 B.C., with its 
sanctuary preceded by courts and porticoes of 
columns after the manner of Egyptian temples, 
was also blended with Phoenician and Assyrian 
details, as described so minutely in I Kings, 6-7, 
and less compendiously in II Chronicles, 3-4. 
For King Solomon employed beams and boards 
of cedar and fir, you will remember, and lined 
the whole sanctuary with gold beaten into 
raised designs, and had two great columns of 
brass, and a huge basin or fountain of the same 
material, cast all in one piece with its base. 
These latter details were all borrowed from 
other sources than Egypt. The way in which 
he built it on an immense raised platform also 
points to Assyrian influence. Later, of course, 
when the temple was. enlarged by Herod to twice 
its former size, in about 18 B.C., Greek and 
Roman elements entered in, although still the 
ancient Egyptian and Assyrian details persisted. 
Here again we can realize our close relation- 
snip to those old peoples of the Nile and the 
Euphrates. 


A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 


15 


PREHISTORIC GREECE 

For the beginnings of European architecture 
proper, we must go to the islands of the western 
Mediterranean, to Crete and Cyprus, to the 
islands of the Aegean Sea, to the mainland cf 
Greece and its cultural dependencies in Asia 
Minor, back'about 3,000 years before Christ, 1800 
years before the Trojan period, and more than 
2100 years before the time of Homer. Here 
flourished a,race of men who built great palaces 
with painted walls, and who at least 2000 years 
before the Christian era carried on an active 
trade with Egypt. Their very existence was 
hardly more than guessed at until the end of 
the nineteenth century, when Schliemann, an 
amateur German archaeologist, startled the 
world with his excavations on the site of Troy 
and elsewhere. Since then we have been able 
to build up a considerable knowledge of these 
early peoples, the forerunners of the Greeks 
whose architectural genius has dominated west- 
srn building for twenty-five centuries. 

At Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Cnossus, etc., were 
found architectural vestiges of these civiliza- 


16 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

tions, beginning with rough walls of huge un¬ 
shaped stones, at times twenty feet in length, 
so colossal that the later Greeks attributed them 
to the Cyclops, a race of giants whence our 
name for this type of work, cyclopean. At 
Mycenae was found the Lion-Gate with its two 
sculptured lions above the crude stone gate-way. 
Between them was carved a column, tapering 
toward the bottom, as we today taper our table- 
legs, and from this we may judge that those 
early progenitors of the Greeks employed such 
columns in their buildings. But they also used 
wood, a fact which left vestiges on even the 
stone carvings of the later classic times, as we 
shall see. They seem not to have built templfes, 
but the arrangement of their dwelling-places 
foreshadowed the later arrangement of the stone 
temples of the Greeks, with a columned portico 
leading into the hall, where columns supported 
the roof about the main central hearth. Domed 
tombs were erected, a practice not followed by 
the Greeks, which seems to point to acquaint¬ 
ance with the work of the Assyrians, since the 
Egyptians did not employ any form of the arch. 

It is still a moot question, to what extent wel 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 17 

owe to these primitive peoples those classic 
types of columns, the three orders, with which 
we shall deal later. Certain it is, that about 
1100 B.C. there swept down from the north a 
horde of half-wild peoples, who destroyed the 
old Mycenaen civilization, so thoroughly that 
even in Homeric times, about 800 B.C. the older 
civilization had bcome mythical. Among these 
invaders were the Dorians, who ‘later symbolized 
to the Greeks the times of primitive simplicity 
and after whom the simplest form of Greek 
column was called. Little did they realize the 
part these barbarians had played in wrecking 
that earlier “glory that was Greece!” 

EARLY GREECE 

The earliest monuments we have of historic 
Greece date from about 650 B. C., although his¬ 
toric records go back to the first Olympiad 
about one hundred years earlier. The struc¬ 
tures we have are already of a highly developed 
style, and seem to point in their structure to 
earlier construction in wood. Even the classic 
stone columns of the Greeks are said by 
scholars to derive from earlier times when 


18 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

these were merely the shaped trunks of trees 
set on end. But of these more primitive struc¬ 
tures we have found no remaining ruins. 

Temples were the chief concern of the Greeks 
in architecture, and in this field they developed 
a type radically different from anything that 
had gone before. For whereas the Egyptians 
had created temples presenting a heavy and 
almost unbroken outward aspect, using heavy 
columns only for the inner support of their 
roofs, and the Assyrians and Persians also had 
given to their structures a closed appearance, 
the Greeks boldly brought their columns out 
into the open, and used them as a decoration 
for the exterior of their structures, an idea 
which we have used ever since, and which 
seems so natural that it is hard to realize how 
great was the inventive genius of the Greeks 
to achieve such a result. The temples were al¬ 
ways rectangular, with an inner hall wherein 
was placed the image of the god. The Egyptians 
and the Hebrews had constructed a mysterious 
sanctuary within court after court, not to be 
seen of any except the chosen priests, hidden 
from the common people. Later Christian 
churches were built for the gathering of large 



A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 19 

songregations. But neither of these features 
?vas necessary to the Greeks, and in comparison 
yith the Egyptian temple at Karnak, or with 
3t. Peter’s at Rome, for instance, the Greek 
■emples were small. At each end of the build¬ 
ing, above the columns and the entablature 
they bore, a low triangular wall was built and 
this established the slope of the roof. This 
triangular space of the gable, called the pedi¬ 
ment, was generally filled with sculptured 
figures, and low reliefs were also generaly used 
to decorate the upper sections of the entab¬ 
lature. 

The earliest monuments we have, before 450 
B. C., including the great Temple of Zeus at 
Agrigentum, the Athena Temple on the island 
of Aegina, the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, and 
the so-called Theseum at Athens, all employed 
the Doric Order of architecture, the simplest 
of the classic styles used by the Greeks, as will 
be made cear in a following section. At first 
the columns were short and squat, in height 
hardly more than four times their width, and 
the entablature above them was unduly wide. 
But by the end of this early period, as we can 


20 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 
see in the wonderfully preserved Theseum, the 
proportions had become refined almost to the 
perfection of later times, and Greek architec¬ 
ture was on the threshold of its highest mani¬ 
festation, in the sublime fifth century B. C., 
an epoch-making era in architecture as it was 
also in drama, in sculpture, and, if we can 
credit the writing of contemporary Greeks, in 
painting. 


GREEK PERFECTION 

The Persian War in the middle of the fifth 
century, B. C. left Attica triumphant although 
its capital city, Athens, was in ruins. Pericles, 
lover of the arts and wise dictator that he was, 
set about the ask of making Athens beautiful, 
which with his chief councilor, Phidias, who is 
known to us also as a sublime sculptor, he 
succeeded in doing. We still make pilgrimages 
to Athens, to look upon what is perhaps the 
most beautiful building ever erected, the Par¬ 
thenon. This temple was erected on a hill in 
the city, called the Acropolis, where were gath¬ 
ered several others of the finest structures of 
classical Greece, masterpieces all of them. The 


A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 21 

Parthenon also was built in the Doric style, 
but it had now reached such subtle refinements 
of beauty that one never tires of looking at it. 
Solidly built and yet not too heavy, delicate 
without weakness or triviality, open to the light 
and air and yet firmly rooted to the earth, this 
building was most harmonious in its propor¬ 
tions, a perfect blending of all the characteris¬ 
tics a building should have. Moreover, it was 
constructed of the finest marble throughout, 
without cement and yet so finely shaped were 
the stones that we can sill marvel at the skill 
of the builders. Here was housed that great 
statue of Athene, fashioned of ivory and gold, 
by Phidias, of which I have spoken in the book¬ 
let on Sculpture. 

In several of the other buildings on the 
Acropolis, there was a blending of the Doric 
order with the Ionic order of architecture, 
which had been developed in the Greek depen¬ 
dencies of Asia Minor. Such was the great en¬ 
trance portico to the Acropolis, called the 
Propylea. The delicate little Temple to Nike 
Apteros (or the Wingless Victory) employed 
only the more slender Ionic order, to be de- 


22 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

scribed later, while the Erechtheum employed 
not only two different sizes of this type of 
column but also had a porch in which carved 
figures of maidens, known as Caryatides, sup¬ 
ported the entablature, one of the loveliest 
creations of all architecture. Another feature 
of all this work which has ever since caught 
the hearts of the lovers of architecture is the 
beauty of the different mouldings employed. 
These are in every case so nicely adapted to the 
function they must serve that they alone would 
stamp the Greeks as masters of their art. 

The Parthenon today is only a ruin, but we 
are still able to trace out some of the delicately 
subtle refinements employed by the Greeks: 
Thus certain straight lines have been found to 
be gently curved, in order to make them seem 
straight. The columns at the corners are 
slightly less widely spaced than the others* 
again to make them seem the same distance 
apart. Thus the Greeks employed optical illu¬ 
sion in the service of their divine architecture, 
a fact which has only become known to us with¬ 
in comparatively recent times. 

Besides temples, the Greeks built open-air 



A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 23 

theatres, consisting of rows of seats slightly 
more than semi-circular in arrangement, with 
a raised platform of stone for the stage, backed 
by a permanent structure decorated with doors, 
columns, etc. Tombs are less frequent, al¬ 
though later there was one superb example, the 
Mausoleum in Halicarnassus, one of the seven 
wonders of the ancient world, consisting of a 
square hall surrounded like a temple with col¬ 
umns and supporting a high pyramid of stone 
on top of which rose carved portrait statues of 
Mausoleus and his wife, standing in a chariot. 
This dates from about 354 B. C. Then there 
were open structures for athletic contests and 
games, of which the Greeks were so fond. 

After the sublime fifth century there was a 
falling away from the chaste and perfect ar¬ 
chitecture of Periclean times. The influence 
of Alexander the Great was toward greater os¬ 
tentation. The huge Temple of Diana at 
Ephesus had columns of which the base was 
richly carved, as we can see in the British 
Museum today. A third type of column, the 
Corinthian order was now much employed, as 
in the lovely little Choragic Monument of 


24 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

Lysicrates, erected to bear the tripod won at 
a choral contest. It remained for the Romans 
to develop fully this rich form of ornament, 
as they did in the enormous Temple of Olym¬ 
pian Zeus at Athens, whose soaring Corinthian 
columns we can still see today, fifty-seven feet 
high. This was in the second century B. C. 

THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE 

Mention has already been made of the three 
classic orders of Greek architecture, the Doric, 
the Ionic, and the Corinthian. To these in Ro¬ 
man times was added another, the Composite. 
Ingenius as we moderns think ourselves to be, 
we have not to this day been able to devise a 
type of column which can compete in har¬ 
monious treatment with these inventions of the 
old Greeks and Romans. Thus we are still in 
debt to the ingenuity of those ancient builders, 
and if you will but look at our banks, post of¬ 
fices, colleges, schools, etc., you will realize how 
true this is. 

In any illustrated dictionary or encyclopaedia, 
under the heading Orders you will very likely 
find illustrations that will make clear to you 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 25 

the distinguishing features of these four styles. 
The Greeks began, as we have seen, with the 
Doric, so-called because they thought it had 
come down to them from the Dorians. It was 
the simplest of the orders, having no base, and 
only a plain square capital above the slightly 
spreading top of the column. In the Ionic or¬ 
der, the capital of the column was character¬ 
ized by a scroll or volute, which hangs in a 
curl at either side of the capital and seems to 
soften the impaot of the entablature above. The 
Corinthian capital was still more ornate, and 
seems to stand upright, whereas both the others 
had lain flat. It was decorated with two rows 
of curling acanthus leaves, which rise to mask 
the supporting core in the center. These col¬ 
umns had tended to grow more slender in the 
successive orders. The entablatures above had 
also undergone certain changes, but if you will 
fix these three types of capital in your memo¬ 
ries, you will be able readily to recognize the 
orders. The Composite order was simply a 
blending of t’he Ionic and the Corinthian orders, 
with a capital employing both the acanthus 
leaves and the curled scroll. The orders under¬ 
went but slight change at the hands of the Ro- 


26 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

mans, although their columns were frequently 
left plain, whereas with the Greeks the columns 
were always channeled or grooved, or fluted, as 
is the architectural term. 

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 

Although the Romans were largely inspired 
by the Greeks in many of their decorative de¬ 
tails, as for instance, the classic orders, it was 
from the Etruscans that they derived another 
element which played a prime part in the devel¬ 
opment of their architecture, the arch. The 
Etruscans were of Asiatic origin, coming from 
Asia Minor about 1000 B. C., and they had 
brought with them from Assyrian models the 
principle of the vault, which later enabled the 
Romans to build arches, vaulted ceilings, and 
domes, such as the Greeks had never employed. 
Thus was laid the foundation for almost all later 
types of architecture, Byzantine, Romanesque, 
Gothic and Renaissance. The use of the vault 
enabled the Romans to give to their struc¬ 
tures an open span over great spaces, which 
the Greeks could never have compassed with 
their stone and wooden ceilings, and brought 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 27 

about that sense of grandeur and imposing size 
which are so characteristic of Roman archi¬ 
tecture. 

Temples were still built largely on the Greek 
model, and their theaters were not much differ¬ 
ent, but to these were added huge baths, amphi¬ 
theaters, forums, great meeting places called 
bascilicas, triumphal arches, commemorative 
columns, aqueducts, bridges, etc., such as the 
older peoples had never dreamed of. The Pan¬ 
theon at Rome, built in the reign of Hadrian, 
(117-138 A. D.) was a circular temple with 
walls twenty feet thick and bearing a hemis¬ 
pherical dome 140 feet high and 142 feet across. 
It is still one of the most inspiring structures 
on earth. The Bascilica of Constantine had a 
main hall 325 by 85 feet, rising to a vault 117 
feet in height, built of concrete. The Baths of 
Caracalla and of Diocletian , built in 211 A. D. 
and 302 A. D., respectively, were incredible in 
size, the latter capable of accommodating 3,500 
bathers at one time. The Colosseum at Rome, 
completed in 82 A. D., was 607 feet in length 
and 506 feet across, with outer walls 180 feet 
high, capable of seating no less than 87,000 
spectators. The huge Circus of Caligula and 


28 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

Nero at Rome, also built for athletic spectacles, 
could hold more than 300,000 people. These 
will give some idea of the scale on which Rome 
built her structures. And it was not in Rome 
alone that these gigantic creations were erect¬ 
ed. Wherever her empire was extended, there 
you will today find traces of like buildings, in 
Asia, Africa and all over western Europe. From 
the first to the fourth centuries, A. D., Rome 
was dominant in architecture as she was in 
government. 

Roman decoration, called upon to cover so 
much vaster spaces than had been the case in 
Greece, developed certain new methods. For 
instance, in the case of the overwhelming outer 
wall of the Colosseum, there were piled arcades 
of arches and columns one on top of another, 
four stories in height. The lowest employed 
Doric columns, the next Ionic, and the last two, 
Corinthian. The columns did not stand free 
from the wall, but partially built into it, in a 
manner called engaged, a method we have con¬ 
tinued to employ to this day, as also is the case 
with the superimposed orders of columns. 
Moreover, whereas the Greeks had built of solid 
marble, the Romans fell into the practice of 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 29 

building in concrete, or even in rubble, and 
then coating the vast expanses of their walls 
with thin veneers of marble or other fine 
stones. Their Arches, of which we still have 
three fine examples at Rome, the Arch 0 / Titus 
(71-82 A. D.), the Arch of Septimus Severus 
(203 A. D.), and the Arch of Constantine (330 

A. D.), were covered with a wealth of orna¬ 
ment such as the Greeks of the fifth century 

B. C. would never have employed, so opulent 
and overpowering it is. The great Column of 
Trajan at Rome, 140 feet in height, still stand¬ 
ing, bears a spiral band of ornament in high 
relief, a novel and effective decoration which 
Napoleon copied in his Colonne Vendome at 
Paris. 

EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 
When Christianity was first officially rec¬ 
ognized by the Emperor Constantine in 328, the 
persecuted followers of the faith were at last 
free to come out of the catacombs where they 
had been carrying on their devotions, and to 
erect for themselves places of worship above 
ground. They adopted two forms of church, 
both from existing models of pagan buildings. 


30 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


The first of these, the basilica, we have already 
seen, was a meeting-place for the Romans in 
their secular and judicial dealings, and this 
form the early Christians took for some of their 
most typical structures. The Christian basilica 
consisted of a single long nave, broad and high, 
with aisles on either side, from which it was 
separated by an arcade supported on arches. 
The aisles had lower ceilings than the nave, 
which rose to a clerestory pierced with win¬ 
dows. At the end of the nave stood the tri¬ 
umphal arch, richly decorated with paintings 
and mosaics, and behind this stood the altar, 
in a semi-circular domed apse. The whole was 
ceiled with wood, which was frequently bright¬ 
ly gilded and decorated, as were also the side- 
walls. The columns were of fine marble, and 
the floor was of mosaics or patterned marbles. 
On the whole, these structures were most im¬ 
pressive, as we can still see at Rome, in the 
churches of St. Paul Beyond the Walls (386 
A. D.) and Santa Maria Maggiore, and at Ra¬ 
venna, in St. Apollinare Nuovo (520 A. D.) and 
St. Apollinare in Classe. 

In all these structures there is evident an 
Oriental delight in color and decoration, and 


A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 


31 


it is well to remember the close connections at 
this time existing between Rome and Byzan¬ 
tium, today known as Constantinople. Constan¬ 
tine, after whom the city was re-named, was re¬ 
sponsible for buildings not only in Rome, but 
also in Bethlehem and Jerusalem, and in the 
city on the Bosphorus, where he built that 
great church which we shall consider in the 
next section, called Hcigia Sophia. With the 
decay of Rome, Ravenna became the seat of 
the Court in 404. In 534 it fell into the hands 
of the Byzantines, which meant an influx of 
Oriental taste, which we still see reflected in 
its brilliant colors. 

But the exterior of these early churches was 
almost always somber and plain. A bell-tower 
was sometimes added, standing apart, as it 
still does in many Italian churches, and ar¬ 
cades were sometimes set up, but generally we 
may say that this architecture was essentially 
an interior art, almost negligent of outward ap¬ 
pearances. 

The other form adopted by the early Chris¬ 
tians was the circular church, which was a fa¬ 
vorite form with Constantine, copied, perhaps, 
from the Pantheon. At Rome we can still see 


32 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

the early church of St. Costanza, erected by the 
Emperor for his sister of that name. It be¬ 
came the prototype of many of the churches 
and baptisteries of later Italy, as witness Pisa 
and Florence. 

BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 

Meanwhile the eastern branch of the Chris¬ 
tian church had been creating a religious ar¬ 
chitecture of its own along different lines of 
development. Influenced by its greater prox¬ 
imity to the Orient, it made greater use of 
color and of the dome than did the early Chris¬ 
tian church in the West, and especially in the 
wonderful manipulation of the latter element 
do we find the characteristic feature of Byzan¬ 
tine architecture. For not only did these peo¬ 
ple raise huge domed structures, as the Romans 
also had done, but they devised a method of 
erecting their domes on buildings of square 
ground-plan, filling in the corners with ingeni¬ 
ous curved triangular sections of wall called 
pcndentives, one of the most beautiful of archi¬ 
tectural achievements. 

The largest Byzantine church, Hagia Sophia, 



A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE S3 

or the Church of Divine Wisdom at Constan¬ 
tinople, frequently mis-called St. Sophia, shows 
us today in its full glory this wonderful method 
of building. The great central open space is 
no less than 200 by 100 feet in size, above which 
rise a series of half-domes, culminating in the 
huge central dome 180 feet above the ground. 
The two side walls consist of two superimposed 
arcades of rich marble columns, with windows 
pierced above, and circling the dome there is 
another row of windows, forming a sort of 
crown of light, another tremendously effective 
arrangement. The lower walls are sheathed 
throughout with precious marbles and por¬ 
phyries, but the pendentives and domes are 
covered with brilliant mosaic on a gold back¬ 
ground, most of which today is unfortunately 
covered by the pious whitewash of the Turks, 
who, since 1453, have used the structure as a 
mosque. Besides this great central nave there 
are two wide aisles, and before the whole struc¬ 
ture extends a porch. 

When one thinks of this vast building, 
erected between 532 and 562 A. D., more than 
thirteen and a half centuries ago, withstanding 
earthquakes and the buffetings of war, one can- 


34 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

not help realizing that the ancients knew more 
of structural technicalities than we ordinarily 
give them credit for. Not only was this a 
superb creation from the point of beauty, one 
of the most imposing structures on earth, but 
also it was an engineering feat of the highest 
merit. The Romans, to be sure, had also learned 
the secret of balancing huge weights high in 
air on only a few points of support, and as a 
matter of fact, it was very likely from them 
that the Byzantines learned the art. But here 
it was carried to a degree never dreamed of by 
the Romans. 

This Byzantine use of the dome is still the 
characteristic architecture of 'modern Greek 
and Russian church architecture, and it early 
invaded the West. The most patent example 
here is the Church of St. Mark, erected at Ven¬ 
ice in 1063. Here also we find the rich dis¬ 
play of fine marbles in columns and walls, and 
of mosaics on the domes and upper walls. The 
exterior has been modified by later builders to 
have a richer appearance than was generally 
the case with Byzantine structures, for here 
again, as with the churches of the early Chris¬ 
tian architects, the main effect was planned for 



A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 35 

the inside. Hagia Sophia itself presents a 
somewhat huddled appearance from the outside. 
Not until Romanesque and Gothic times did 
architects again devise structures imposing 
both within and without. 

ROMANESQUE IN ITALY AND FRANCE 

When Charlemagne died, in 814, there began 
a gloomy time for Europe, from which it was 
not to recover until the eleventh century. The 
division of the empire into three parts led to 
conflicts of which we have not yet seen the 
end, as we can see in the Great War. Tribes 
of barbarians swept down out of the north, and 
civil strife broke out everywhere. When the 
great monarch died, the Roman type of basilica 
was still serving for the type of Christian 
church. About the year 1000 A. D. we see the 
birth of a new sort of architecture, called the 
Romanesque, and the way is made clear for 
that re-awakening of the human spirit which 
we know as the Gothic period and the Renais¬ 
sance. 

Romanesque is a good term for this form of 
construction, for whereas it was derived from 


36 


- 

A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

the Romans, it also possessed traits sufficiently 
clearly marked to warrant a distinction. Th< 
round Roman arch was still employed, but witl 
a totally different feeling for decoration fron 
that employed in Rome. A barbaric zigzag pat 
tern about the doors and windows was nov; 
used, borrowed from northern peoples. The 
chief difference from the older Christian basil¬ 
ica lay in the fact that the ceiling was now 
vaulted with stone instead of roofed with wood, 
and the more primitive conditions now obtain¬ 
ing led to the abandonment of brilliant mosaics 
and fine marble. The floor-plan of the church 
had been changed, too, and given that form of 
a cross which we still see in most churches. 
This was brought about by adding two tran¬ 
septs at right angles to the nave of the church, 
near the choir or altar-end of the structure, 
and very likely was the result of the wave of 
symbolism which swept over the land about 
1000 A. D., when the earth did not come to an 
end as had been predicted. 

The type of vaulting now introduced was 
something new in western architecture, which 
greatly simplified the construction and paved 
the way for those later achievements of Gothic 


A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 37 

architecture which are still our wonder and 
admiration. For whereas the Romans had 
needed huge systems of scaffolding and center¬ 
ing for the erection of their barrel-vaulting, 
only a very scant support was now needed 
from corner to corner of each section or bay, 
for the throwing across of the first diagonal 
ridges, which then formed, as it were, two in¬ 
tersecting and self-supporting arches, on which 
the rest of the vault could be built in quite 
easily, with slight support or even none at all. 
The ceiling or roof was thus broken into small 
sections, but as the architects increasingly mas¬ 
tered the new art they arranged these panels 
in interesting patterns, which really added to 
the beauty of the structure. 

The resulting church buildings were some¬ 
what squat and heavy, as we can see, for in¬ 
stance, in the Cathedral' at Pisa, with its 
attendant Baptistery and Leaning Belfry , at 
least they impress us that way after we have 
grown accustomed to the loftier Gothic type 
of building. In this same cathedral we can 
also see the curiously unarchitectural use of 
rows of columns piled one on top of another, 
which Romanesque builders very likely adopted 


38 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

from Asiatic architects, with whose work most 
mediaeval craftsmen were in intimate touch, 
through trade and the crusades. It is unar- 
chitectural, of course, because the columns 
here serve no structural purpose but are merely 
stuck onto the building for ornament. The 
famous leaning tower itself suffers from the 
same fault, although here the delicate workman¬ 
ship and lovely color go far to make us forget 
its shortcomings otherwise. At Piacenza and 
Verona we find Romanesque churches with 
those fine porches which make of so many 
early Italian cities a joy to visit. Supported 
on slender columns which rest on the backs of 
crouching lions, these small porticoes have the 
characteristic round arch of the Romanesque. 

In France the churches lack these porches, 
and while their western fronts are generally 
more decorated than was the case in Italy, they 
seem more constricted and narrow-shouldered 
than the Italian churches. But it was from the 
great French abbeys, such as those at Cluny 
and Fontevrault, that the great wave of Roman¬ 
esque building seems to have swept over Eu¬ 
rope. The eleventh and twelfth centuries were 
given over to this enthusiastic building up of 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 39 

the visible strength of the church, which, with 
the royal power, was increasingly usurping the 
sway over men’s activities, both of body and 
of souh 

ROMANESQUE IN ENGLAND AND GERMANY 

Especially noteworthy was the development 
of Romanesque in Germany, where the genius 
of this style seemed to fit in perfectly with the 
sturdy nature of the people. The eleventh- 
century cathedrals of Mainz, Speyer and 
Worms, took on a unified sense of design and 
solidity that showed at last an architectural 
form which could be imposing both within and 
without. Towers were frequently erected at 
both the eastern and the western ends of the 
churches, which somewhat detracted from their 
unity of impression unless, as also was some¬ 
times the case, a larger central tower was built 
over the crossing of the nave and transepts, to 
dominate the whole structure. 

Nor must we forget the famous palace of the 
Wartburg, erected about 1150, and renowned 
in the annals of mythology, poetry and music, 
for its connection with Tannhaeuser, the Min* 


40 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 

nesingers, and Wagner. Its high rectangular 
hall in three stories, with arcaded windows, 
was repeated in other baronial and royal build¬ 
ings throughout the country. 

As to England, we must remember that the 
Norman Conquest took place in 1066, in this 
very period of Romanesque architecture, which 
in consequence is here generally called, both 
in church and the grim fortress-like homes, 
Norman. Saxon architecture had been but a 
crude and diminutive affair, as we can see in 
the surviving Church of St. Laureflce at Brad- 
ford-on-Avon and in the Saxon balusters which 
were built into the triforium at St. Albans. The 
Norman prelates who ousted their native pre¬ 
decessors immediately began the erection of 
great Norman cathedrals, beginning with St. 
Albans about 1077, and continuing at Durham, 
Norwich, etc. Many of these early huge piles 
were covered with wooden ceilings, which al¬ 
lowed of larger windows than was usually the 
case in Romanesque churches. 

English architects even in this early period 
were devising ground-plans different from 
those on the continent, and were paying far 
less attention to the western portals than was 



A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 41 

the case in France and Italy. These features 
persisted into Gothic times as well, giving to 
the English cathedrals a character all their 
own. Whoever has looked upon that rich por¬ 
tion of Canterbury cathedral which dates from 
Norman times, however, or visited the noble 
ruin of the Abbey at Malmesbury, can realize 
the great beauty that was inherent in the Ro¬ 
manesque type of architecture, and will never 
again look upon it as only an insignificant pre¬ 
lude to the greater Gothic style which fol¬ 
lowed it. There is one little Romanesque 
church at Beauvais, which with its restrained 
and delicately carved decoration and its su¬ 
perb wheel-window has repeatedly won my 
heart even over the sublimely high-soaring lines 
of the much later cathedral, and sometimes I 
have almost been led to regret the so-called 
advance into Gothic architecture. 

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE 

Just as the Romanesque architecture of the 
eleventh and twelfth centuries was character¬ 
ized largely by its use of the round arch, so in 
the latter part of the twelfth century there 
•merged a further development of architecture, 


42 




A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


characterized by the pointed arch, and destined 
to play a magnificent role in Europe through¬ 
out the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth 
centuries. The origin of this pointed arch is 
still a matter of some dispute among scholars, 
who claim for it variously an Asiatic origin, in¬ 
troduced through the closer relationship 
brought about by the Crusades, or simply a 
natural evolution from the Romanesque type 
of vaulting. Be that as it may, we do find that 
in these years this same type of arch was em¬ 
ployed in all of western Europe and in Syria, 
and what might be called the Near East in gen¬ 
eral. 


It is true that certain other characteristics 
of Gothic architecture were the natural out¬ 
growth of experiments with the Romanesque. 
Thus it had been found that the great weight 
of the stone vaulted ceilings was .as a matter 
of fact concentrated on only a few spots, and 
that by reinforcing these points with addition¬ 
al supports or buttresses, the rest of the sup¬ 
porting wall might be lightened or even done 
away with altogether, allowing the insertion of 
huge windows such as were never attempted 
in the more primitive style. France took the 



A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 43 

lead in this movement, and the cathedral 
church of Notre Dame at Paris, begun in 1163, 
was the first great monument attempted in the 
new manner. Here the new effect is immedi¬ 
ately perceptible. The outer walls are largely 
given over to windows, while the support to 
the vaulted roof is carried not only on but¬ 
tresses build directly against the walls, but, 
by means of flying arches, is shifted out to 
huge piles of masonry standing free from the 
main part of the building. These are the fa¬ 
mous flying buttresses, a feature never used in 
any other scheme of architecture, and one of 
the most original devices of Gothic construc¬ 
tion. These same principles were employed in 
the superb cathedrals of Chartres (1194-1240), 
Rouen (1202-1220), Rheims (1212-1242), Amiens 
(1220-1288), etc., with varying detail. The 
Sainte Chapelle (1242-1247), at Paris, built to 
receive the sacred relics of the Passion brought 
back by St. Louis, is practically built of win¬ 
dows, with the stone vaulted ceiling carried on 
slender shafts’ which seem quite negligible 
from within. These great windows, fifty feet 
in height and fifteen feet across, are filled with 
some of the most glorious stained glass on 


44 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


earth, dating from the same time, as are the 
windows at Chartres, and were also perhaps 
influenced by Oriental practice. The tracery 
in these windows, as the stone mullions and 
circular designs are called, was at first ex¬ 
tremely simple, mere geometrical combinations 
of the simplest elements. As the architects 
mastered the new technique, however, this 
tracery became more ornate, so that at length 
it seemed a mass of open spaces shaped like 
the flame of a candle, whence its name of 
flamboyant, a term often applied to the later 
type of Gothic. This same tendency to compli¬ 
cation was also evident in the groining of the 
stone vaulted ceilings, which gradually grew 
more and more ornate, offering, along with 
the window tracery, a convenient method of 
determining the period of the structure. 

The ground-plans of French cathedrals were 
all more or less the same, with a long nave and 
choir surrounded by aisles , single or double, 
and broken by the transepts, which formed the 
arms of the cross. Chapels were frequently 
erected all along the aisles, so that a French 
cathedral really becomes a congeries of diminu¬ 
tive places of worship, each with its altar, al- 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 45 

though the whole is dominated by the high al¬ 
tar at the eastern end of the choir. Amiens, 
the longest of the French cathedrals, reached 
a length of 521 feet, while Beauvais, the high¬ 
est Gothic cathedral, has a vaulted ceiling 
which towers 160 feet above the pavement. In 
the earlier churches, as at Notre Dame, cir¬ 
cular columns were still employed, but as the 
architects came to consider their style as a 
whole, these incongruous elements were elim¬ 
inated, and clustered columns were introduced, 
which tended to give a clearer impression of 
upward soaring lines, without the break of 
the capitals to mar this effect. For Gothic 
architecture was essentially an architecture 
of vertical lines, just as Greek architecture had 
emphasized the horizontal. Look at a picture 
of a Greek temple and then examine a photo¬ 
graph of a Gothic cathedral, and you will see 
the utter contrast. This it was, of course, 
which led Renaissance architects to apply the 
inappropriate term of Gothic to this mediaeval 
style which so offended their classically trained 
eyes. With them it was a term of reproach, 
implying barbarity. 

The western facade of French cathedrals 


46 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

also followed one general scheme, although 
varied infinitely in its details. As we can see 
in the early case of Notre Dame at Paris, this 
western front was divided into three horizontal 
parts, comprising first the portals, second, the 
rose-window, and third, the towers. Here they 
are clearly marked, but later, as at Rouen, the 
three sections become interfused, through the 
application of carved screens of decorative 
carved stone. The towers also varied extreme¬ 
ly, as may be seen in the two specimens on the 
cathedral at Chartres, the southermost of which 
is considered the finest Gothic spire in exist¬ 
ence, rising in one splendid unbroken sweep 
from the ground to its pinnacle, whereas the 
northern spire was a fifteenth century addi¬ 
tion broken into a thousand smaller pinnacles 
and a graceful tracery of stone work. The por¬ 
tals also grew more complicated in their decora¬ 
tion, and at length became deep caverns filled 
with a complexity of statues and columns. The 
north and south doors were embellished in the 
same way in later churches, as once more is 
shown in the wonderful structures at Chartres. 

Nor must we forget the secular employment 
of Gothic architecture in France, as exempli- 




A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


47 


fied in the towering structure of Mont St. 
Michel, so wonderfully dealt with, along with 
Chartres cathedral, in Henry Adams’s great 

hook. 

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND 

England also had a notable development of 
Gothic architecture, influenced in many of its 
details by the more northern type of construc¬ 
tion found in Normandy. Thus the central 
towers or spires typical of so many English 
cathedrals, such as Ely, Durham, York, Can¬ 
terbury, Lincoln, and Gloucester, find their 
French counterparts in the church of St. Ouen 
at Rouen, and in the famous Tour de Beurre 
of the Rouen cathedral. English cathedrals 
were generally narrower and less lofty, also, 
than the usual French cathedral, and were most 
usually finished with a square apse, whereas 
the French cathedrals were here generally 
rounded. The ground-plans also frequently 
showed a tendency to two «e*s of transepts, 
which add to the outward appearance of these 
structures, although, in compensation, the west¬ 
ern fronts are as a whole less well organized. 


48 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

English Gothic did not develop the same flam¬ 
boyant type of Gothic as the French, but in¬ 
stead evolved in the fourteenth century a 
characteristic style, called the Perpendicular, 
in which the window-traceries and all the de¬ 
tails tended to an almost extreme accentuation 
of the vertical lines. This is seen to full ad¬ 
vantage in the great west window of St. 
George's in Windsor Castle, in King's College 
chapel at Cambridge, and in the Chapel of 
Henry VII in Westminster Abbey. But the 
vaulting of English churches developed a phan¬ 
tasy of invention such as was never achieved 
by the French. Especially in that late develop¬ 
ment called fan-vaulting, such as one sees in 
the choir of Oxford Cathedral and elsewhere, 
where dozens of groins branch out from one 
single support, to meet and mingle in compli¬ 
cated geometrical designs, one finds a totally 
new development of the principle. This con¬ 
struction was also used in those typically Eng¬ 
lish buildings, the chapter-houses, such as one 
delights in at Lincoln, Westminster, Salisbury, 
and Wells, where the cathedral chapter met to 
deliberate. These were polygonal halls, usually 
with one central column from which branched 



A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


49 


out the myriad vault-ribs to meet the fan- 
vaults from the sides and angles of the polygon. 
At York the central column is supplanted by a 
Gothic dome of wood, very beautiful, by many 
considered the finest of all. 

Many of the cathedrals of England are sur¬ 
rounded by broad lawns and a complicated 
group of open cloisters, chapter-houses, church 
schools, episcopal palaces, etc., most pictur¬ 
esque as a setting and widely different from 
the French custom of erecting their great cathe¬ 
drals in the heart of the town, with the burgh¬ 
ers’ houses and shops frequently leaning 
against the very walls of the sacred structure. 
It should be noted also, that more of the Eng¬ 
lish cathedrals were carried to completion than 
was the case on the Continent. Hardly a 
French cathedral has the spires and toweis 
which were originally planned for it, whereas 
most of the English cathedrals were finished as 
designed. The spire of Salisbury cathedral, 
424 feet in height, is a perfect culmination to 
this great pile, whereas all that we have of 
Beauvais cathedral, for instance, is a trun¬ 
cated form, less than half completed. 







5U 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY 

The Germans clung long to Romanesqi 
architecture, and quite rightly, since they h* 
evolved from it a noble and imposing type 
construction, and it was not until the for 
teenth century that Germany frankly adopt* 
the newer style. When it did come, howevc 
it came with a fury that drove the Germa] 
frequently into extremes, as in the attentuat* 
mullions in the church at Muehlhausen, tl 
too slender spire, all lace, at Strasburg, ai 
in the overwrought complexities visible ; 
Nuremberg. They did achieve one notable ne 
development, by raising the ceilings of the 
aisles to the same height as that of the na\ 
as in the Frauenkirche at Munish and el£ 
where, thus creating what is known as tl 
hall-churchy a really very effective constrr 
tion. In their spires, also, they frequently su 
stituted open stone work for the more sol 
construction of French and English example 
as in the twin spires of the Cologne cathedn 
completed only in the nineteenth century aft 
the original fourteenth century designs. Th 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 51 

ihedral is almost thoroughly French mode¬ 
rn and decoration, however, and can give us 
rhaps the most complete conception of what 
is originally planned for most of the cathe- 
als in France, whose spires were never fin- 
led. This does not mean, of course, that it 
the most beautiful of the cathedrals. For its 
corations are somewhat mechanical, cut-and- 
ied, although correct enough, as is the case in 
r own Cathedral of St. Patrick at New York, 
lother characteristic of many German 
urches, both Romanesque and Gothic, is the 
ct that brick was used in their construction, 
en the high towers being of this material, as 
the two great bulbous structures of the 
- auenkirche , which form the chief character- 
tic of the Munich sky-line. 

The secular structures of Germany, especially 
Nuremberg, of this period, are many of them 
xaint and charming. Several towns have been 
'eserved intact from Gothic times, with hardly 
modern structure to mar the effect, notably 
inkelshuehl and Rothenherg. In Belgium the 
»wn-halls of Brussels and Louvain, and the 
jild-halls of Bruges, Ghent, along with the 
loth-hall of Ypres, unfortunately now lost to 


52 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

the demon War, also show the splendid place 
mediaeval cities must have been. The tw 
finest churches in Belgium are Ste. Gudule a 
Brussels, and the seven-aisled Cathedral o 

i 

Antwerp with its lofty and over-decorated bu 
very lovely south spire, like a high-flung bit q 
Mechlin lace. 

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY 

Gothic architecture never became fully ad 
climated in Italy, despite the two or three ndi 
table exceptions which immediately spring t< 
mind to the contrary, such as the Milan cathe 
dral, the Doge's Palace at Venice, and th< 
Campanile at Florence. The climate, in thi 
first place, did not demand or even permit o: 
the huge windows which we have seen wer< 
one of the prime characteristics of the Gothi< 
develoment. The Sainte Chapelle, if trans 
ferred from Paris to the Florentine sunlight! 
would become an unbearably dazzling jewel 
casket, insufferably hot. The Italians needed 
rather, cool shadowy churches with not to< 
large windows. They were filled, moreover, v 
must be remembered, with centuries of Byzan 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 53 

tie training, which veneered its buildings in 
•ight marbles, depending rather on surface 
dor than on the play of light and shadow as 
as the case in French Gothic. Even when 
lopting this latter method, as at Milan, the 
alians carried the principle too far, giving us 
crowded mass of bristling pinnacles which we 
ore marvel at than admire. 

The monastic orders were great builders of 
lurches in the thirteenth century, and did 
tuch to spread the Gothic type of structure, as 
>r instance in the double Church of St. Fran - 
is at Assissi, Sta. Maria Novella at Florence, 
;c. But the various cities themselves took 
ride in erecting great churches, as was also 
le case in other parts of Europe, and to this 
pirit we owe the cathedrals of Siena, Flor- 
nce, etc. The Siena Cathedral has also cer- 
lin Romanesque details, and throughout is 
uilt in alternating courses of black and white 
larble, hardly a successful experiment, prob- 
biy copied from Oriental sources, where the 
ractice is a favorite one. The Florence Cathe- 
ral is covered outside with colored marbles, 
nd within is severely plain and bare, one of 
he most disappointing structures imaginable. 


54 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

The great dome is of Renaissance workma 
ship, but the superb Campanile, designed 1 
Giotto (died 1^6) is Gothic in details, ai 
was quite rightly considered by Ruskin oi 
of the “touchstones” of perfect architectur 
one of the most beautiful monuments of a 
tiquity. In the cathedral here as elsewhe: 
can be seen those iron tie-rods, binding t 
gether the arches and vaults, in which the Ita 
ians were not sufficiently interested to bu 
tress them properly, so much more engrosse 
were they in the decoration of surfaces. 1 
most cases the cathedrals and churches wei 
never given their finishing western front. Sien 
is a fine exception to this, where Giovanr 
Pisano (about 1235-1320) carved the ornat 
front in 1284. But the western facade of th 
Florence cathedral has been added in our ow 
day, while that of Milan contains inappropr 
ate Renaissance elements. 

The Palazzo Vecchio with its frowning ba 
tlements, at Florence, with its neighborin 
Loggia dei Lanzi , Gothic only in its decorativ 
details, can be contrasted with the light grac 
of much architecture in Venice, of the Gothi 
period. The lovely little Ca d’Oro, as subtl 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


55 


alanced in its arrangement as a Japanese 
rint, as well as several other palaces along 
le Grand Canal, and the fine double arcade of 
he Doge's Palace, already mentioned, are 
mong the supreme achievements of Gothic 
|3cular architecture. 

| In Spain, Gothic architecture came into full 
wing closely following on the conflicts which, 
eginning in 1217 and ending in 1492, finally 
rove out the Moors. Filled with pride and 
aanksgiving, the Spaniards erected great cathe- 
rals after the French manner, at Toledo, Bur- 
'Os, Salamanca, Barcelona, etc., and in 1401 
egan the cathedral church of Seville, the 
irgest mediaeval church in Europe. In the 
ifteenth century, decoration here went beyond 
[he bounds of propriety as it did everywhere 
l Europe, although it sometimes achieved re- 
ults which in a minffr sort of way can charm 
[ur senses. 

MOORISH ARCHITECTURE 

The Moors, who had overcome the Spanish 
eninsula in 710-713, left behind them some 
plendid examples of their architecture, a 
ranch of Arabic art, which, together wit^ 




56 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


that of the Persians, Turks and Hindoos, wa 
derived largely from Byzantine sources, mixei 
with native elements. Highly gifted in thei 
civilization and in architecture, this people lef 
an invaluable heritage to Spain, in a multitud 
of beautiful buildings, which still are an inspii 
ation. The Alhambra , dating from about 130C 
is the masterpiece, with its wide courts an< 
sheltering porticoes; and then there is th 
lofty Giralda tower, model for our own Mad\ 
son Square Garden, and Seville and Malag 
both boast of Alcazars. 

The Koran forbids the use of the human fig 
ure in art, and thus we find all Mohammedan 
exercising their ingenuity in devising geometr 
cal patters with which to cover their walls an 
windows. Arches are fretted and fringed wit 
carved detail, windows are filled with piercei 
stone work of the utmost delicacy, fragment 
of Holy Writ in the original beautiful flowin 
characters are inscribed on the walls amid 
thousand curious scrolls and diaper patterns 
which we still call arabesques. Another decc 
rative feature of this architecture is the stala 
tite formation, composed of an infinite combin 
lng of tiny pendentives and corbels, looking lik 



A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 57 

honeycomb, and generally rich colored, like the 
rest of the architectural details. 

The Moorish mosques, such as the curious 
specimen at Cordova , with horse-shoe arches of 
alternating; colored stones, became the cus¬ 
tomary style for Jewish synagogues, through 
their having been built for Spanish Jews at 
this time by Moorish workmen. The type has 
persisted to present times in other parts of the 
world as well. 

THE EARLY ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 

If Italy never rose to great heights with the 
Gothic style of architecture, she offered ample 
1 compensation in the Renaissance manner of 
building, and led the world into the new era,, 
which we have not yet left. As early as the 
thirteenth century there were flushes of the 
coming dawn, in sculpture and painting, at 
least, but it was not until the first part of the 
fifteenth century that the first step was taken 
toward a re-working of classical elements, 
which is surprising, since all about them in 
Italy were vestiges of the Roman works. These 
1 were used rather for supplies of ready-shaped 



58 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 
stones than as models of construction, however, 
for approximately ten centuries. 

Florence blazed the way, that wonderful lit¬ 
tle city of beauty, mother of all the arts in a 
very real sense of the word. Public pride arose 
in about 1417 and clamored to have the cathe¬ 
dral roofed in somehow. The great yawning 
octagon, 143 feet across, made an unsightly gap 
in the structure, and a competition was held 
for architects to solve the problem. Brunel¬ 
leschi (1377-1446) won the commission, and 
planned the huge dome over the space as we 
see it today. This was not a direct imitation 
of any work of classical times, and, indeed, 
outside of Mohammedan art it was the first 
dome of its type on earth, toppecr with a white 
marble lantern. This fact can stand as typical 
for us of all the work of this early Renais¬ 
sance. Architects did not so much imitate di¬ 
rectly, as was later the case, but went to an¬ 
cient works for details and for decorations, 
which were then worked up into a totally new 
concoction, something unmistakably of modern 
times, something essentially Florentine. 

Other churches were also built, such as for 
instance the delicate Pazzi Ohapel and St. 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


59 


Lorenzo and San Spirito, all at Florence. These 
employed classical columns, but used them in 
an unclassical manner, each isolated column 
standing with its tiny section of entablature 
balanced on its head, supporting the round 
arches between nave and aisle. The effect was 
novel, and still is charming. Exquisite mould¬ 
ings about doors and windows were fashioned 
from antique motives, altars and pulpits were 
shaped of classical columns and corbels, in a 
manner which seems natural enough to us now, 
but which then was a great innovation. Floren¬ 
tine architects went to all parts of Italy, 
spreading the new doctrine of old architectural 
details. 

But it was in its palaces that Florence really 
made its greatest success, and we are still as¬ 
siduously copying these structures in our apart¬ 
ment houses, hotels, and clubs. The Riccardi 
palace was the first, in 1430, built for Cosimo 
de’Medici by Michelozzi (1397-1473). Outward¬ 
ly it was as grim and tightly closed as a fort¬ 
ress, which was necessary in those days, but 
within there opendd an arcaded court sup¬ 
ported on Corinthian columns. The bottom 
story was built of rough stones in what is 


60 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 

called rustic work, but the upper two stories, 
with windows, are built of dressed stone, while 
at the top there is a heavy projecting cornice , 
fit to finish off this majestic pile. The Pitti 
palace was built by Brunelleschi in 1435, wholly 
of rustic work, on a gigantic scale on the fur¬ 
ther side of the river. The Rucellai and the 
Strozzi palaces, the latter by Benedetto da Ma- 
jano and Cronaca about 1489, both were on the 
same general lines as the Riccardi, with a cor¬ 
nice, although the Pitti lacked this element. 
These palaces also were abundantly copied in 
different parts of Italy. At Venice, in 1481, 
was built the Vendramini Palace, on the Grand 
Canal, and here at last the fortress character 
was dropped, as being no longer needed. Rows 
of open windows between engaged columns lead 
down to the very water’s edge, resting on a 
stone platform. 

Thus we may say that the fifteenth century 
belonged to Florence in Renaissance architec¬ 
ture, one of the loveliest flowering periods of 
the human spirit. 



A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 61 

THE HIGH RENAISSANCE IN ITALY 

But for the fully devolped Renaissance in the 
next century we must turn to Rome, where 
once more the popes had established them¬ 
selves and were building up their dominion, 
temporal as well as spiritual. Michelangelo 
(1475-1564), Raphael (1483-1520), and Bra- 
mante (1444-1514), all came to Rome at the 
behest of the Pope in the early years of the 
sixteenth century, and were later engaged in 
the construction of St. Peter's, the largest 
church in the world. By this time the study 
of the masterpieces of Roman architecture had 
begun to bear fruit, and all of these architects 
and artists could employ classical details with 
a sense of conscious correctness unknown to 
the earlier Florentines. So it is that we some¬ 
times find a coldness and self-conscious pro¬ 
priety about these later works, less pleasing 
than the more informal even if blundering use 
of the details in Florence. 

The Giraud palace and the palace of the Can- 
celleria, both in Rome, show this sense of fit¬ 
ness, does also that portion of the Vatican 
erected by Bramante for Julius II. The Villa 
of this pope, erected by Vignola in 1550, the 


62 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

Villa Medici, now the seat of the French Acad¬ 
emy at Rome, and the Villa d'Este with its 
wonderful gardens at Tivoli, show the same in¬ 
fluences under different aspects. 

But of course the crowning achievement was 
St. Peter's, begun by Bramante in 1506, 
strengthened and domed by Michaelangelo in 
1546, given its present weak facade in 1606, 
and completed with its two imposing wide- 
sweeping arcades by Bernini in the seventeenth 
century. The church is nearly 600 feet long in¬ 
side', with the dome spanning a space 140 feet 
across and rising to a total height of 405 feet. 
The gilded and marble-incrusted interior is not 
as imposing as it should be, owing to the gi¬ 
gantic scale of the columns and all the decora¬ 
tions. Michelangelo especially had a leaning 
toward the overwhelmingly big in architecture, 
but St. Peter’s is an excellent exemplification 
of the truth that majesty in architecture de¬ 
pends more on the proportions than on mere 
size. The dome is a ■ masterpiece, modeled 
somewhat after the work of Brunelleschi at 
Florence, but handled in a totally different 
manner as to the decorations. The method 
employed in this church, of having a single gi- 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 63 

gantic order of columns rise through two or 
more stories of lesser columns, inaugurated 
about the middle of the century a new style in 
church building in Italy, which led almost in¬ 
evitably to the decline of architecture in the 
seventeenth century, as we shall see later. 

At Venice there was working another inno¬ 
vator, less coldly formal than those architects 
already mentioned, or than Palladio (1518-1580) 
whose cold, bare, correct churches also cre¬ 
ated a style, which bore his name abroad. 
Sansovino (1477-1570) erected that charming 
Library of St. Mark whose corner was knocked 
off when the old Campanile fell in 1902. Here 
an element of richness was gained by adding to 
an arcade of columns and arches still larger 
columns outside, which were engaged on the 
piers between the arches and carried the richly 
carved entablature above. Two stories were erect¬ 
ed, with a stone balustrade on top, on which were 
ranged stone statues. The resulting effect was 
rich and yet restrained, and later architects car¬ 
ried at least the main outlines of the scheme 
completely around the huge open Piazza of St. 
Mark's. This type of structure has been copied 
innumerable times in modern buildings. 


64 


A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 


THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE 

Francis I of France was responsible for the 
introduction of Renaissance architecture into 
his native land. He returned from his vic¬ 
torious Italian campaigns a hopeless captive 
to all things Italian, which sent him and his 
nobles into a feverish building of those glo¬ 
rious chateaux in the Loire country, such as 
Blois, with its famous open stair-case in the 
court-yard, Chambord, etc., and to the erection 
of the brick and stone Chateau de St. Germain, 
the palace at Fontainebleau and the beginnings 
of the Louvre Palace at Paris. In all of these, 
however, the Italian elements were so thor¬ 
oughly interwoven with the native French 
characteristics, that the Renaissance here took 
on a new feeling, which warrants the name of 
French. High and steep roofs from mediaeval 
times were frequently retained, and ground- 
plans of distinctly Gothic nature were often 
carried out with Renaissance buildings. In the 
churches themselves, such as St. Etienne du 
Mont and St. Eustache at Paris, Gothic and 
classic elements were interfused in a manner 


A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE: 65 

hardly legitimate but frequently picturesque. 
Unfortunately a classical veneer of arches and 
columns was sometimes attempted for older 
Gothic churches, as in St. Michel at Dijon, 
where the very towers were sheathed in a stack 
of pillars. 

Florentine influence was continued in the 
sixteenth century by the two queens Catherine 
and Marie de Medici, for whom were built the 
palaces of the Tuileries, destroyed under the 
Commune, and the Luxembourg, both at Paris. 
In theses firmer and more rigorously correct 
style was employed, lacking the fine exuberance 
of the earlier period. 

Then came the time of Louis XIV, in the 
seventeenth century, when architecture became 
grandiose, symmetrical and rather oppressive, 
as we see in the vast expanse of the palace at 
Versailles, partially the work of that Mansard 
(1647-1708) who has given his name to a cer¬ 
tain type of roof, and in the long eastern colon¬ 
nade of the Louvre, perfectly proportioned, and 
very beautiful, even though it leaves one with 
rather a cold impression. Finer was the im¬ 
posing dome of the Invalides, at Paris, also by 


66 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

Mansard, with its high drum supported by col¬ 
umns, and its pointed lantern. This gilted 
silhouette is one of the most pleasing elements 
of the Paris sky-line, better than the later and 
more strictly classical dome of the Pantheon , 
erected in the eighteenth century. To the same 
architect we owe the frigid dignity of the Place 
Vendome and the graceful little dome of the 
Val-de-Grace at Paris, the first of which seems 
to look forward to the cold severity of the archi¬ 
tecture of Louis XV. 

Interiors at this time were rich with gold 
and paintings, and Gobelin tapestries were fre¬ 
quently used for decorations, as in the sump¬ 
tuous Galerie d’Apollon in the Louvre. At Ver¬ 
sailles the famous long Gallery of Mirrors looks 
out over complicated gardens which echo the 
same opulent spirit, and even the trees are 
given an architectural treatment by being 
carved into geometrical shapes or trimmed into 
long formal alleys. Whereas the rooms of 
Francis had been somewhat sombre, with 
straight lines predominating in the decorations 
and in the furniture, glowing chairs and tables 
and mouldings covered with gold-leaf were now 
the rule, gracefully curved and scrolled. 




A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


67 


THE GERMAN RENAISSANCE 
In Germany the Renaissance underwent a 
still further modification to local elements. The 
mediaeval architecture, with its picturesque 
high-pitched roofs and numerous gables, took 
on a tinge of classical grace, with columns and 
pilasters and pediments, but the resultant pic¬ 
turesque effect remained essentially German. 
The middle of the sixteenth century saw this 
transformation in Germany proper, although 
in Austria and Bohemia it had arrived still 
earlier. The masterpiece of this German Re¬ 
naissance was undoubtedly the castle at Heidel¬ 
berg, where under Otto Heinrich in 1556-1559 
and under the County Palatine Friedrich in 
1601-1607 were erected two wings, thoroughly 
Gothic in feeling, and thoroughly Italian in dec¬ 
orative details. Here, as at Berlin and Munich, 
the general plan was evolved piecemeal, so 
that today these castles or palaces are collec¬ 
tions of odd courts and various structures, at 
angles one with another, most picturesque in 
their groupings. At times, as at Landshut, 
however, palaces of Italian symmetry were 
srected. 




68 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

Town-halls were also built under the new in¬ 
spiration, as at Bremen (1612) with a fine 
arcade on Doric columns, at Nuremberg, almost 
severely Roman, and at Augsburg (1615). Pri¬ 
vate houses abound, among the most charming 
native Renaissance creations, as was the case 
also in Holland and Belgium. Here, too, native 
elements were prevalent, such as the character¬ 
istic stepped gables and high dormer windows, 
Leyden, the Hague and Amsterdam all possess 
charming town halls, built chiefly of brick, ow¬ 
ing to the scarcity of stone in this low country. 

Much more florid was the development of the 
Renaissance in Spain. Recently enriched by 
the departure of the Moors in 1492 and by the 
discovery of America, the Spaniards turned 
from flamboyant Gothic to a sumptuous form of 
classic art, brought in by Flemish workmen. 
Much of the detail was borrowed from the 
silver work which had become so prevalent 
since the acquisition of the new mines in the 
Western hemisphere, and to the new architec¬ 
ture was therefore applied the term Plater- 
esque, from a word meaning “silversmith.” 
The first half of the sixteenth century was 





A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 69 

given over to this style, such as we see in the 
sumptuous portal of the University at Sala¬ 
manca, filled with flat scrolls and shields and 
medallions, or in that unique Casa de las Con¬ 
chas in the same city, where the whole facade 
of the building is patterned with cockle-shells 
carved at intervals. 

The latter half of the sixteenth century in 
Spain was given over to the more classic style, 
called locally the Griego-Romano. The master¬ 
piece of this period was the huge palace of the 
Escurial, begun in 1563, 740 by 580 feet in size, 
and dominated by the majestic, domed church 
with its Doric columns. The graceful upper 
part of the Giralda tower at Seville also dates 
from this period, as does the over-ornate Palace 
of Charles V at Granada. 

THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE 

In England the Gothic style of architecture 
lingered on well into the sixteenth century, par¬ 
ticularly in a form employing a much flattened 
form of pointed arch called the Tudor style. 
Under Queen Elizabeth foreign artists came to 
England and influenced the architecture, as 


70 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

they also held sway over painting, sculpture, 
gardening, etc. Shakespeare’s plays give abun¬ 
dant evidence of the predominant position of all 
things Italian at this period. Country houses 
and mansions appeared in this foreign fashion 
until there finally arose a native architect, 
Inigo Jones (1572-1652), deeply enamored of 
the truly classical work of Palladio in Italy, 
whose very designs he seemed in some cases 
to have attempted on English soil. It will be 
remembered that he it was who devised the 
setting for Milton’s classic masque of “Comus.” 

The Banqueting Hall at Whitehall in London 
*is his masterpiece, with its windows bearing 
pediments of alternating rounded and triangu¬ 
lar shape, in the best manner of Palladio. It 
was to have formed a part of a huge palace, 
never completed, which would have ranked as 
the grandest palace of the period. 

But greater still was that famous astronomer 
and architect, Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) 
into whose hands was fortunately put the un¬ 
dertaking of rebuilding most of London after 
the great fire in 1666. Fifty churches were 
built by him, with an almost infinite variety 


A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 71 

of form and decoration, and there were more¬ 
over the lovely cupola to Tom Tower and the 
Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford, the majestic 
pavilions and colonnade of the Greenwich Hos¬ 
pital, etc. But his masterpiece of course, was 
the cathedral of St. Paul’s in London, erected 
on the site of the older Gothic cathedral which 
had been practically destroyed by the fire. 
Built on the conventional cross design, with 
classical details throughout, it is surmounted 
by a dome towering 360 feet above the pave¬ 
ment, which is still the most imposing spec¬ 
tacle in the city. The west front consists of 
i two-storied portico with Corinthian columns, 
lopped with a triangular pediment, while at 
either side is a hell-tower, built up of classical 
elements. Inside, the vista is somewhat like 
that in St. Peter’s at Rome, but the proportions 
ire such as really to make the smaller church 
:he more imposing. It is less richly decorated 
;han the Roman church, and seems a trifle cold, 
iut when the system of decoration has been 
jompleted, this defect will be remedied. 

Wren’s steeples were perhaps his most influ- 
rntial creation, as far as his effect on later 



72 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

architects has gone. These were most various 
in their details, but generally consisted of a 
pyramidal form, compounded of different classi¬ 
cal elements. Perhaps the most successful, for 
instance, is that of St. Mary le Bow, in Cheap- 
side, where on a square tower with classic 
pilasters, rises a circular colonnade whose cen¬ 
tral core mounts still higher, masked by classic 
scrolls, to a small cluster of Corinthian col¬ 
umns, topped with a steep pyramidal obelisk. 
Such steeples were much copied in early Amer¬ 
ican architecture, particularly in New England, 
which owes some of its finest churches to 
Wren’s influence. 

THE BAROQUE STYLE 

This same seventeenth century was for Italy 
not so happy a period architecturally, since it 
saw the birth and ugly development of a de¬ 
cadent classicism known as baroque, which 
eventually spread all over Europe. In this 
style, columns must writhe, as in the huge 
bronze baldaquin devised for St. Peter’s by 
Bernini, and arches must be broken into three 
or four segments on different planes. Scrolls 







A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 73 
are coiled in every corner, and even bear the 
weight of domes, as in the otherwise lovely 
church of Sta. Maria clella Salute at Venice. 
Ornament is applied for its own sake and no 
longer has any structural significance, straight 
lines seem tabu, the picturesque wins over the 
dignified conception of architecture, the whole 
style becomes nervous and restless. At the 
same time the interiors become overcrowded 
with ornament, in a style which has been 
termed Jesuit , in which the effect gained is 
cherished above sincerity, the very antithesis 
of the Greek ideal. 

Italy was not alone in this her sinfulness. 
Germany followed suit, as in the prominent 
Theatinerkirche at Munich, and the Z winger 
palace at Dresden, which seem almost trivial 
despite their size. Spain suffered terribly, as 
in the facade of the cathedral of Murcia, to 
mention only one horrible example, which looks 
like a bit of pastry elaborately frosted, so 
vulgar is its general conception and the sense 
of petty detail. Even England was not spared, 
as we may see by the entrance to St. Mary's 
College at Oxford, with its twisted columns and 
mutilated pediment ending in futile scrolls. 


74 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

France escaped the clutches of this decadence, 
through the restraining hand of Louis XIV, 
who, whatever his faults of taste may have 
been, would never have tolerated excesses of 
this vulgar type. The furniture of his period, 
to be sure, and the decorative paneling of his 
palaces underwent somewhat of a parallel trans¬ 
formation, less irritating here, however, than 
in the more permanent and serious forms of 
outward architecture. To this style, together 
with that of Louis XV, is sometimes given the 
name of rococco, a form which swept the bou¬ 
doirs of all Europe. Gilding and bright colors 
were much employed in this somewhat saccha¬ 
rine type of decoration, with which the newly 
imported Chinese pottery was much used. Larg¬ 
er structures were but rarely attempted in this 
style, although the gem-like little Residenz- 
theater at Munich, where some of Mozart’s 
operas were performed for the first time, was 
constructed throughout in this manner. 

CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE 
The middle of the eighteenth century saw a 
remarkable awakening of interest in things 
classical, which continued until the first quar- 




75 


A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 

ter of the nineteenth century. Herculaneum 
and Pompeii were now first unearthed, Winkle- 
mann and Goethe in their writings tried to 
lead men toward a classic balance, and in 
France the growing forces of the Rationalists 
looked back to the periods of Greece and Rome 
as models in all things. It must be remembered 
that a large part of the French Revolutionists 
looked upon their activity at first as a return 
to the first principles of primitive man of 
Arcadia. 

This same interest in things ancient and 
archaeological manifested itself in the archi¬ 
tectural works now erected. In England the 
Bank of England and the British Museum were 
both given facades in which classic details 
were not merely employed, but ancient models 
were closely copied direct. At Liverpool the 
noble form of St. George’s Hall was erected. 
Germany saw rise the Brandenburg Gate and 
the Old Museum at Berlin, both with classic 
columns beautifully employed. At Munich were 
erected several groups of antique buildings, 
including the Greek Propylaea or gate-way, the 
Glv.vtothelc or Sculpture Gallery, the PinakO' 


76 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

theTc or Picture Gallery, and an Ionic Exhibition 
Hall. Outside the city rose the Ruhmeshalle, a 
severely Greek Hall of Fame backing a colossal 
classic statue of Bavaria. 

In France this style is frequently called Em¬ 
pire, since it reached its greatest spread under 
Napoleon. The Panthton , cold and correct, al¬ 
though possessed of a beautiful dome which 
stands on a high circular range of columns, has 
a portico with six immense Corinthian columns 
supporting a classic pediment, on a larger scale 
than marked the Invalides facade or the front 
of St. Paul's, of an earlier classicism. Napo¬ 
leon built two triumphal arches in Paris, the 
small Arch of the Carrousel in the court of 
the Louvre, and the huge Arc de VEtoile at 
the top of the Avenue des Champs-Elysees. Both 
of these were inspired by classic models. So 
also was the church of the Madeleine, which 
Napoleon built near the classic Place de la 
Concorde. It is a perfect replica of a Roman 
temple outside, and is balanced at the other 
end of the long vista across the square and the 
river, by the classic Legislative Building with 
its twelve columns. 


A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 77 

Early American architecture also was shaped 
largely by this same classic revival, which has, 
as it were, hardened into the official archi¬ 
tectural style of our governmental buildings, 
such as post-offices, etc., to this very day. In 
the eighteenth century, we developed that 
charming Colonial style , which was essentially 
a classic movement, worked out in wood. The 
churches reflected the influence of Wren, the 
finest structures of the period. In the South 
arose many stately homes of brick, frequently 
with high classic columns, while in the North, 
frame houses, often most chaste and pic¬ 
turesque in their details of columns, porches, 
doors, etc., were the rule. In California and 
Florida the predominant style was of course, 
Spanish, but otherwise the classic revival held 
full sway. Our earliest public-buildings after 
the War of the Rebellion were in the same 
general style, with colonnades, domes, etc., but 
now executed in more permanent stone. The 
New York City Hall (1803-1812) is a handsome 
example of this period, as is also the Capitol 
at Washington, begun in 1793 and not com¬ 
pleted with its dome until 1873. The State 
House at Boston (1795) and the University of 


78 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

Virginia (1817) are further specimens. Later 
came a more rigidly correct period of classic 
imitation, evident in such structures as the 
Treasury and the Patent Office at Washington, 
the Philadelphia Mint, the Sub-Treasury and 
the Old Custom House at New York. Residences 
of this period also sometimes bore simulated 
Grecian colonnades and porticoes, as in the 
graceful White House. 

MODERN FRENCH ARCHITECTURE 

Owing to the French type of national mind, 
which yields readily to the voice of authority 
such as is voiced architecturally by the Ecole 
des Beaux-Arts, or national art-academy, mod¬ 
ern French architecture has followed largely 
in the path of the Renaissance. Under Napoleon 
III the Louvre received extensive and on the 
whole most worthy additions, comprising that 
whole court-yard where now stands the Bart¬ 
lett statue of Lafayette. This was done in a 
rich and disinguished form of French Renais¬ 
sance (1852-1857). The majestic Grand Opera 
(1863-1875) by Gamier, seems to derive more 
from Venetian architecture of the sixteenth 






A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE: 7 y 

ancl seventeenth century, and is perhaps the 
most sumptuous pleasure-house in the world. 
Its exterior is one of the finest creations of 
modern times. The refined little Musce Gal- 
Hera at Paris should also be mentioned as a 
notable example of modern French Renaissance. 

Outside this tradition, however, stood Viollet- 
le-Duc (1814-1879), a notable archeologist and 
architect, responsible for the re-awakening in 
Europe of the interest in Gothic architecture, 
and for the restorations of Notre Dame and 
other Gothic structures in France, especially 
the great mediaeval castle of Pierrefonds. He 
even went so far as to predict that perhaps 
from the new constructive methods in steel, al¬ 
lowing vast open spaces and the accentuation 
of upright lines, a new Gothic revival might 
eventually come to pass, a prophecy which we 
have seen partially accomplished and certainly 
gloriously vindicated in the spire of the Wool- 
worth building at New York. His influence 
in Paris led directly to the building of the fine 
Library of Ste. Genevieve, and perhaps indi¬ 
rectly to the inception of the many-domed 
uhurch of Sacr&Coeur on top of Montmartre 
it Paris, Franco-Byzantine in style. The new 



‘80 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

Hotel de Ville at Paris is Gothic, echoing th< 
outline of the older structure, destroyed dur 
ing the Commune. 

In the Paris Exposition of 1900 was used ar 
abortive new attempt to get away from classic 
architecture, and, as a matter of fact, fron 
everything else that had gone before. Th< 
free-flowing forms of Nature as exemplified ii 
grasses and leaves seemed to be the chief in 
spiration of this Art-Nouveau, as it was called 
and suddenly the whole western world wai 
filled with furniture and jewelry and vasei 
that writhed and lolled and turned and twiste< 
in every possible combination of long curves 
anything to escape from straight lines. For 
tunately this vogue did not seriously touch ar 
chitecture, although it did succeed in fasten 
ing upon succeeding generations of the beauty 
loving Parisians a lot of hideously ugly sut 
way-entrances, of which they have since growl 
sick and tired. 

In England the most noteworthy movemen 
of the nineteenth century after the classic re 
vival, was the spread of what has been calle< 
Victorian Gothic. The huge expanse of th 




A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 81 

<~vilament. Houses at London shows this move¬ 
ment at its finest, perhaps, (begun 1839) less 
accessful in the Assize Courts at Manchester, 
ae New Museum at Oxford, the gawdy Albert 
|r emorial and the New Law Courts both at 
ondon. Romanesque also came in for its own, 
3 in the Natural History Museum at South 
ensington, and the impressive new Roman 
atholic Cathedral at London. 

Italy need be mentioned here only for that 
luge white Monument to Victor Emmanuel at 
S ome, more notable for its size than for its 
mfinement of proportions or of detail. In Bel- 
| um, Brussels can boast of a Palais de Justice 
hose imposing mass crowns the central sky- 
iae of the city. 

§» s '4>: ■ ' ' ■ -" 

MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY 

| Along with Renaissance and classic elements 
j German architecture there also appeared a 
[ vival of Gothic and Romanesque structures 
iring the nineteenth century. At Munich, 
j r instance, not only was the Ludwig shir che 
! lilt in Romanesque style, but the whole street, 
'mile in length and including the Library and 




82 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

the University, who treated in the same arch 
tectural manner, producing a dignified visti 
In the same city was likewise erected an earl 
Christian Basilica. For the most part, hov 
ever, classic elements prevailed, both in Ge: 
many and in Austria, until the end of the cei 
tury. Among the finest structures of this p< 
riod are several theatres, as at Dresden, Be 
lin, and Vienna, and schools and universitie; 
as in the Bauschule at Berlin, and others £ 
Carlsruhe, Stuttgart, Vienna, etc. The hug 
Reichstag building at Berlin, with its squai 
glass and iron dome, cannot be called a succes 
The ornate Imperial Museum at Vienna can t 
taken as typical of the gaiety sought in muc 
of the later architecture of that city. 

But the twentieth century has seen the sprea 
of a new type of architecture, owing its origi 
latterly to an Austrian, Otto Wagner, althoug 
reaching still further back, perhaps, to tv 
Belgian architects, Hankar and Horta, wl 
gained their ideas, it seems, from the Englis 
aestheticians Ruskin, William Morris, etc., wh 
undoubtedly were thrilled by the plea for arch 
tectural sincerity voiced by Viollet-le-Duc bac 
in 1860. This movement, now called Secession 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


83 


■, would have modern architects devise a 
Ddern style of building of our own, and not 
forever harking back to antique models with 
lich our modern life has no longer any di¬ 
et relationship. The movement gained great 
ipetus before the war of 1914, and according 
all reports has continued its progress in Ger- 
my and Austria since that time. Quite ap- 
opriately its chief works have been for the 
using of industrial plants, department'stores, 
ilroad stations, etc., since ours is essentially 
industrial civilization, but it has also done 
me notable work in both lighter and more 
Dnumental forms. The permanent Exposition - 
ounds at Munich, including‘the ,epoch-mak- 
g little Kuenstler-theater, were built tlirough- 
t in the somewhat stclid new style, as were 
e great Voelkerschlacht monument at Leipzie 
d the Bismarck monument at Bremen. 

The chief characteristics of this interesting 
w development, which has hardly touched 
nerica, are a frank acceptance of modern 
cuctural conditions, and an attempt to han- 
e these sincerely, without the intervention 
classical conceptions. Masses and decorative 
tails thus treated seem to uninitiated eves 


84 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 
primitive and wayward. Archaism has be 
charged against the new style, which nevertl 
less has done in both Germany and Aust] 
some of the most effective as well as the m( 
original work of the twentieth century. 

MODERN AMERICA 

The distinguishing element in American arc 
tecture in recent times has been, perha] 
its ability to pick ,and choose the things 
wished to imitate or emulate, in other wor< 
its electic nature. We have assimilated evei 
thing from Greek times to our own, includi 
Roman, Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic a 
Renaissance, and somewhere or other have us 
these styles to good advantage. The Pai 
Ecole des Beaux-Arts has undoubtedly be 
largely instrumental in shaping the destiny 
our cities latterly, since many of our fint 
architects have gained their European scho 
ing in that academic atmosphere. 

Following on the Gothic revival there cai 
a great sweep of the Romanesque, under t 
powerful influence of H. H. Richardson, whc 
Trinity Church at Boston, and Courthouse a 




85 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

Jail at Pittsburgh we can still admire. But 
in lesser hands this difficult style proved more 
intractable, and was finally abandoned. The 
Cathedral of St. John the Divine at New York 
was begun in a Romanesque style, but has since 
then been carried on in Gothic, under the su¬ 
pervision of Ralph Adams Cram (born 1863), 
also responsible for the massive Gothic re¬ 
building of West Point , the new buildings at 
Princeton, and the beautifully balanced church 
of St. Mark's at New York, perhaps the finest 
specimen of Gothic in the city. 

The Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 
was a revelation of classical architecture which 
had a great effect in elevating the taste of the 
American people. Another excellent influence 
was the enlightened eclecticism of Stanford 
Whit, to whom we owe the delicate grace of 
Madison Square Garden, the Italian charm of 
the Washington Square memorial church, and 
the great Pennsylvania Station, all at New 
York. This last is the most imposing imita¬ 
tion of Roman architecture in the country. In 
the church erected by this same architect for 
Dr. Parkhurst, in Madison Square, America 
}wned a superb example of the domed Byzan- 


86 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 

tine style, now unfortunately destroyed. The 
Boston Public Library is a finely restrained 
creation, better in its total effect than is the 
more ornate Congressional Library at Wash¬ 
ington. It would manifestly be impossible to 
point out all the notable buildings of modern 
America, where the chief note today is the com¬ 
plexity of our civilization and the free choice 
allowed to architects to roam almost at will 
in all the styles of the past, in their attempts 
to portray modern culture in their buildings. 
Domestic architecture especially has been a 
promising field of endeavor, and in America 
has latterly been achieving some beautiful re¬ 
sults, ranging from our own Colonial to En¬ 
glish styles and to those of France, Italy, and 
in the West, to those of Spain. 

But the most original development in Amer¬ 
ican architecture has, of course, been in the 
evolution of the skyscraper. The problem here 
was to erect a fireproof structure to great 
heights with comparatively light walls, since 
steel construction no longer demanded the tre¬ 
mendous mass to support the upper stories. 
Structural steel, elevators and the soaring land 
values of our large cities brought about the 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 8 1 

new type of building, which at first was hailed 
with a storm of protest. At first, be it con¬ 
fessed, the new structures were not beautiful, 
since the architects were frankly at sea in the 
handling of a problem such as had never been 
before propounded. The solution seems to have 
been found in treating these high buildings es¬ 
sentially as towers, however, so that our large 
cities will eventually become largely a congeries 
of separate beautiful buildings of this type. 
The Singer building, with its French Renais¬ 
sance treatment in red brick and yellow stone, 
the Metropolitan Life tower, patently modeled 
on the. Venice campairle, and the beautiful up¬ 
per section of the Gothic Woolwort’h building 
have been the most successful solutions thus 
far offered. The huge Equitable Life building 
seems to have succumbed to its impossible task 
of giving architectural meaning to its enormous 
blank walls pierced by thousands of small win¬ 
dows, and to have concentrated its architectural 
attention on the decoration of its lower stories. 
American ciies are at present so homogeneous 
in their civilization and their architecture, that 
these few examples can suffice to show what 
is going on all over the country. 




88 


A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 


BOOKS TO BUY 

Reinach’s Apollo, Scribner. 

Hamlin’s History of Architecture , Longmans. 

Goodyear’s Renaissance and Modern Art, 
MacMillan. 

Ferguson’s History of Architecture, Dodd 
Mead & Co. 

Luebke’s History of Art, Dodd Mead & Co. 

Robinson’s Modern Civic Art, Putnam. 

Simpson’s History of Architectural Develop¬ 
ment, Longman’s. 

Woelffling’s Art of the Italian Renaissance, 
Putnam. ? 

Koch’s Book of Carnegie Libraries, H. H. Wil¬ 
son Co. 

Hoppin’s Greek Art on Greek Soil, Houghton, 
Mifflin Co. 

Henry Adams’s Mont St. Michel and Chartres, 
Houghton Mifflin. (This remarkable book 
gives the whole background, historical, literary 
and artistic, of mediaeval France). 

All these volumes may be obtained through 
the Haldeman-Julius Co., Girard, Kansas. 


POCKET SERIES 


80 


Other Titles in 



Drama 

295 Master Builder. Ibsen. 
90 Mikado. Gilbert. 

31 Pelleas and . Melisande 
Maeterlinck. 

16 Prometheus. Aeschylos. 
308 Stoops to Conquer 
Goldsmith. 

3 4 Misanthrope. Moliere. 
16 Ghosts. Ibsen. 

80 Pillars of Society 
Ibsen. 

46 Salome. Wilde. 

54 Importance of Being 
Earnest. Wilde. 

8 Lady Windermere’s 
Fan. Wilde. 

131 Redemption. Tolstoy. 
99 Tartuffe. Moliere. 

26 The Anti-Semites. 
Schnitzler. 

Shakespeare’s Plays 

J59 The Man Shakespeare. 

Yol. 1 Frank Harris 
160 The Man Shakespeare. 

Vol. 2. Harris. 

61 The Man Shakespeare. 

Yol. 3. Harris. 

162 The Man Shakespeare. 
Yol. 4. Harris. 

140 The Tempest. 

141 Merry Wives Windsor. 

142 As You Like It. 

143 Twelfth Night. 

144 Much Ado Nothing. 

145 Measure for Measure 

146 Hamlet. 

147 Macbeth. 

14 8 King Henry V. 

149 Julius Caesar. 

50 Romeo and Juliet. 


1 251 Midsummer Night’s 
252 Othello. 

253 King Henry VIII. 

254 Taming of Shrew. • 
255 King Lear. 

256 Yenus and Adonis. 

257 King Henry IV. 

Part I 

258 King Henry IV. 

Part II. 

259 King Henry VI. 

Part I. 

260 King Henry VI. 

Part II. 

261 King Henry VI. 

Part III. 

262 Comedy of Errors. 

263 King John. 

264 King Richard in. 

265 King Richard II. 

267 Pericles. 

268 Merchant of Venice. 

Fiction 

307 Tillyloss Scandal. 
Barrie. 

331 Finest Story in the 
World. Kipling. 

357 City of the Dreadful 
Night. Kipling. 

363 Miggles and Other 
Stories. Harte. 

377 A Night in the Lux¬ 
embourg. Remy 
De Gourmont. 

336 The Mark of the 
Beast. Kipling. 

333 Mulvaney Stories. 
Kipling. 

188 Adventures of Baron. 
Munchausen. 

352 Short Stories. Wm. 
Morris. 







‘JO 


POCKET SERIES 


332 The Man Who Was 
and Other Stories. 
Kipling. 

280 Happy Prince. Wilde. 
143 Time of Terror. Balzac. 
182 Daisy Miller. H James 
162 Rue Morgue. Poe. 
345 -Clairmonde. Gautier. 
292 Fifi. De Maupassant. 
199 Tallow Ball. De Mau¬ 
passant. 

G De Maupassant’s . 
Stories. 

15 Balzac’s Stories. 

344 Don Juan. Balzae. 

318 Christ in Flanders. 


Balzac. 

030 Fleece of Gold. Gautier. 
178 One of Cleopatra’s 
Nights. Gautier. 

314 Short Stories. Daudet. 
58 Boccaccio’s Stories.. 

45 Tolstoi’s Short Stones. 
12 Poe’s Tales of Mystery. 
290 The Gold Bug. Poe. 
145 Great Ghost Stones. 

21 Carmen. Merimee. 

23 Great Sea Stones. 

319 Saint-Gerane. Dumas. 

3 8 Jekyll and Hyde. 

979 Will o’ Mill. Stevenson. 
311 Lodging for Night. 
Stevenson. 

27 Last Days Condemned 
Man. Hugo. 

151 Man Would Be King. 
Kipling. 

148 Strength of Strong 
London. 

41 Xmas Carol. Dickens. 
57 Rip Van Winkle. 


Irving. 

100 Red Laugh. Andrevev. 
105 7 Hanged. Andreyev. 
102 Sherlock Holmes Pales, 
161 Country of Blind 


Wells. 

85 Attack on Mill. 


Zola. 


1.76 Andersen’s Fairy Tales, 
158 Alice in Wonderland. 
37 Dream of Ball. Morris 
40 House & Brain. Lytton 
72 Coloj: cl Life. Halde 
man : Juuus. 

198 Majesty of Justice. 

Anatole France. 

215 Miraculous Revenge. 
Shaw. 

2 4 The Kiss. Chekhov. 
285 Euphorian. Moore. 

219 Human Tragedy. 
France. 

196 The Marquise. _ Sand. 
239 26 Men and Girl. 
Gorki. 

2 9 Dreams. Schreiner. 

23 2 Three Strangers. 
Hardy. 

277 Man Without a 
Country. 

History & Biography 

141 Life of Napoleon 
Finger. 

432 Tragic Story of Osc£ 
Wilde’s Life. Finger. 
340 Life of Jesus. Ernei 
Renan. 

183 Life of Jack London. 

269 Contemporary Por¬ 
traits. Vol. 1. 

Frank Harris. 

270 Contemporary Por¬ 
traits. Vol. 2. 

Frank Harris. 

271 Contemporary Por¬ 
traits. Vol. 3. 
Frank Harris. 

2 72 Contemporary Por¬ 

traits. Vol. 4. 

Frank Harris. 

3 28 Addison and His Tin 
312 Life of Sterne. 

394 Life of Lincoln. 

323 Life of Joan of Arc. 




SOCKET SEHIES 


39 Thoreau—the Man 
Who Escaped From 
the Herd. 

3 6 History of Rome. Giles. 

38 Julius Caesar’s Life. 

35 History of Printing. 

19 Historic Crimes. 

Finger. 

to Science of History 
Froude. 

)4. Waterloo. Hugo. 

52 Voltaire. Hugo. 

35 War Speeches of 
Wilson. 

3 2 Tolstoy. Life and Wks. 

12 Bismarck’s Life. 

36 When Puritans Ruled. 

13 Life of Columbus. 

16 Crimes of Borgias. 
Dumas. 

37 Whistler: The Man 

i! j, and His Work. 

SI Life of Bruno. 

17 Cromwell and His 
Time? 

!6 Heart Affairs Henry 

1 Vlll. 

,-0 Paine’s Common Sense. 

j>8 Vindication of Paine. 
Ingersoll. 

j'S Brann: Sham Smasher. 

>3 Life in Greece and 
Rome. 

4 Speeches of Lincoln. 

6 Speeches of Washing¬ 
ton. 

4 Was Poe Immoral? 

:3 Essay on Swinburne. 

'0 Lost Civilizations. 

;7 Keats. The Man and 
His Work. 

0 Constantine and Be- 
ginnings of Chris¬ 
tianity. 

ri Satan and the Saints. 

>7 Church History. 

9 Voices From the Past. 

6 Life of Shakespeare. 


91 

Life of Du Barry. 

Life of Dante. 

Life of Mary, Queen 
of Scots. 

Life of Johnson. 
Macaulay. 

Trial of William Penn. 

Humor 

Jumping Frog. Twain. 
Idle Thoughts. Jerome. 
English as She Is 
Spoke. Twain. 

Humorous Sketches. 
Twain. 

Artemus Ward. His 
Book. 

Whistler’s Humor 
Wit of Heine. Eliot. 
Let’s Laugh. Nasby. 

Literature 

Oscar Wilde in Outline. 
Finger. 

Machiavelli. Lord 
Macaulay. 

Virginibus Puerisque. 
Stevenson. 

Literary Stars on 
Scandinavian Fir¬ 
mament. Moritzen. 
Hundred Best Books. 
Powys. 

Dante and Other 
Waning Classics. 

Vol. I. Mordell. 

Dante and Other 
Waning Classics 
Vol. 2. Mordell. 

An Apology for Idlers. 
Stevenson. 

Aucassin and Nicolete. 
Lang 

Friendship, etc. 

Thoreau. 

Nature. Thoreau. 
England in Shake¬ 
speare’s Time. Finger. 


123 

139 

69 

5 

174 

291 

18 

166 

231 

205 

187 

216 

20 

442 

305 

358 

431 

435 

109 

110 

349 

3 55 

278 

195 

220 




32 


POCKET SERIES 


194 Chesterfield’s Letters, | 
G3 Defense of Poetry. 
Shelley. 

97 Love Letters of King- 
Henry VIII. 

3 Essays. Voltaire. 

28 Toleration. Voltaire. 

89 Love Letters of Genius. 
186 How I Wrote “The 
Raven.” Poe. 

87 Love. Montaigne. 

4 8 Bacon’s Essays. 

60 Emerson’s Essays. 

84 Letters of Portuguese 

Nun. 

26 Going to Church. Shaw. 
136 Socialism for Million* 
aires. Shaw. 

61 Tolstoy’s Essays. 

176 Four Essays. Ellis. 

100 Shakespeare. Ingersoll. 

75 Choice of Books. 

Carlyle. 

238 Chesterfield and Ra¬ 
belais. Sainte-Beuve. 

7 6 Prince of Peace. Bryan. 
86 On Reading. Brandes. 
213 Lincoln Ingersoll. 

95 Confession of Opium 
Ecitci* 

177 Subjection of Women. 
Mill. 

17 Walking. Thoreau. 

70 Lamb’s Essays. 

235 Essays. Chesterton. 

7 Liberal Education. 
Huxley. 

233 Literature and Art. 
Goethe. 

2 25 Condescension in For¬ 
eigners. Lowell. 

221 Women and Other 
Essays. Maeterlinck. 

10 Shelley. Thompson 
2 89 Pepys’ Diary. 

299 Prose Nature Notes. 
Whitman. 


315 Pen, Pencil, Poison, 
WUde. 

313 Decay of Lying. Wil 
36 Soul of Man. Wildfc 
293 Villon. Stevenson. 

Maxims & Epigrai 

77 What Great Men II 
Said About Women. 
304 What Great Womer 
Have Said About M 

179 Gems From Emerson 
310 Wisdom of Thackei 
193 Wit and Wisdom ol 

Charles Lamb. 

56 Wisdom of Ingersoll 
106 Aphorisms. Sand. 
168 Epigrams. Wilde. 

59 Epigrams of Wit anc 
Wisdom 

35 Maxims. Rochefoucai 

154 Epigrams of Ibsen. 
197 Witticisms De Sevig 

180 Epigrams of Shaw. 

155 Maxims. Napoleon 

181 Epigrams. Thoreau 
2 28 Aphorisms. Huxley 

113 Proverbs of England 

114 Proverbs of France. 

115 Proverbs of Japan. 

116 Proverbs of China. 

117 Proverbs of Italy 

118 Proverbs of Russia. 

119 Proverbs of Ireland 

120 Proverbs of Spain 

121 Proverbs of Arabia 
348 Proverbs of Scotian' 
380 Proverbs of Yugosla 

Philosophy and 
Religion 

273 Social Contract. 
Rousseau. 

364 Art of Controversy. 
Schopenhauer. 




POCKET SERIES 93 


111 Words of Jesus. Vol. 

1. Henry C. Vedder. 

112 Words of Jesus. Vol. 

2. Vedder. 

39 Guide to Aristotle. 
Durant. 

338 A Guide to Emerson. 
218 Essence of the Talmud. 
11 Guide to Nietsche. 
Hamblen. 

159 Guide to Plato. 

Durant. 

3 22 Buddhist Philosophy. 
124 Theory Reincarnation. 
157 Plato’s Republic. 

62 Schopenhauer’s Essays. 
94 Trial and Death of 
Socrates. 

65 Meditations of Aurelius. 
64 Eucken: Life and 
Philosophy. 

4 Age of Reason. Paine. 
55 Spencer. Life and 
Works. 

44 Aesop’s Fables. 

165 Discovery of Future. 
Wells. 

96 Dialogues. Plato. 

325 Essence of Buddhism. 
103 Pocket Theology. 
Voltaire. 

132 Foundations of 
Religion. 

138 Studies in Pessimism. 
Schopenhauer. 

211 Idea of God in Nature. 
Mill. 

212 Life and Character. 
Goethe. 

200 Ignorant Philosopher. 
Voltaire. 

101 Thoughts of Pascal. 

210 Stoic Philosophy. 
Murray. 

22 4 God: Known and Un¬ 
known. Butler. 

19 Nietzsche: Who He 
Was. 


204 Sun Worship. Tichenor. 
207 Olympian Gods. 
Tichenor. 

184 Primitive Beliefs. 

153 Chinese Philosophy of 
Life. 

30 What Life Means to 
Me. London. 

Poetry 

294 Sonnets From 
Portuguese. 

Browning. 

346 Old English Ballads. 
296. Lyric Love. Robert 
Browning. 

301 Sailor Chanties and 
Cowboy Songs. 

Finger. 

351 Memories of Lincoln. 
Whitman. 

298 Today’s Poetry. 
Anthology. 

365 Odes of Horace. Vol. 1. 

366 Odes of Horace. Vol. 2 
9 Great English Poems. 

152 Kasidah. Burton. 

283 Courtship of Miles 
Standish. 

282 Rime of Ancient 
Mariner. 

317 L’Allegro. Milton. 

297 Poems. Southey. 

329 Dante’s Inferno. Vol. 1. 

330 Dante’s Inferno. Vol. 2. 
306 Shropshire Lad. 

284 Poems of Burns. 

1 Rubaiyat. 

73 Whitman’s Poems. 

237 Prose Poems. 

Baudelaire. 

2 Wilde’s Ballad of 
Reading Jail. 

32 Poe’s Poems. 

164 Michael Angelo’s 
Sonnets. 

71 Poems of Evolution. 




94 POCKET 

146 Snow-Bound. Pied 
Piper. 

79 Enoch Arden. 

68 Shakespeare's Sonnets. 
281 Lays of Ancient Rome. 
173 Vision of Sir Launfal. 
222 The Vampire. Kipling. 

Science 

445 Psychical Research. 

Vol. 1. Carrington. 

446. Psychical Research. 

Vol. 2. Carrington. 

13 Man and His Ancestors. 
Fenton. 

447 Auto-Suggestion— 

How It Works. 

William J. Felding. 

408 Introduction to 
Einstein. Hudgings. 

409 Great Men of Science. 

47 Animals of Ancient 

Seas. Fenton. 

274 Animals of Ancient 
Lands. Fenton. 

3 27 Ice Age.. Finger. 

321 History of Evolution. 

217 Puzzle of Personality. 
—Psycho-Analysis. 

190 Psycho-Analysis. 
Fielding. 

140 Biology and Spiritual 
Philosophy. 

275 Building of Earth. 

49 Evolution. Haeckel. 

42 Origin of Human Race. 
238 Reflections on Science. 
Huxley. 

202 Survival of Fittest. 
Tiehenor. 

191 Evolution vs. Religion. 
Balmforth. 


SERIES 

133 Electricity Explained. 
92 Hypnotism Made Plain. 
53 Insects and Men. 

189 Eugenics. Ei.is. 

Series of Debates 

130 Controversy. Ingersoll 
and Gladstone. 

43 Marriage and Divorce. 
Greeley and Owen. 

208 Debate on Birth Con¬ 
trol. Mrs. Sanger and 
Russell. 

129 Rome or Reason. In¬ 
gersoll and Manning. 
122 Spiritualism. Doyle 
and McCabe. 

171 Has Life Any Meaning': 

Harris and Ward. 

206 Capitalism: Seligman 
and Nearing. 

234 McNeal-Sinclair Debate 
on Socialism. 

Miscellaneous 

342 Hints on News Report 
ing. 

32 6 Hints on Short Stories 
192 Book of Synonyms. 

25 Rhyming Dictionary. 

78 How to Be an Orator 
82 Faults in English. 

127 What Expectant Moth 
ers* Should Know. 

81 Care of the Baby. 

136 Child Training. 

137 Home Nursing. 

14 What Every Girl 

Should Know. 

Mrs. Sanger. 



95 


POCKET SERIES 


91 Manhood: Facts of 
Life. 

83 Marriage. Besant. 

74 On Threshold of Sex. 
98 How to Love. 

72 Evolution of Love. 


203 Rights of Women. 

Ellis. 

209 Aspects Birth Control. 
93 How to Live 100 Years. 
167 Plutarch’s Rules of 
Health. 

320 Prince. Machiavelli. 





























































































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